Shakespeare's tragedies in the context of the late Renaissance (the Elizabethan period) and from the point of view of modern sensibility

 '6. SHAKESPEARE’S TRAGEDIES ' 

- Shakespeare achieved 37 plays, on average one / 6 months for nearly 20 years. He wrote as an actor/poet to provide popular and topical entertainment

 histories:
 * 1) *arrangement of his plays: the Early Comedies, the Chronicles, the histories, the Later Comedies, the Problem Plays, the Roman Plays, the Early Tragedies, the Great Tragedies, the Final Plays
 * 2) *he preferred to tell old stories rather than invent new ones, realizing that his ability lay in the ideas of others.
 * 3) *early plays reveal him experimenting with his story style, plenty of rhymes
 * 4) *as he matured, he became more skillfull, the poetry is used with restraint and more purpose, to paint character and to deepen emotions
 * He started with historical plays. He represented English history in patriotic way. He wrote plays about medieval society and the coming of the Tudor
 * A great passion is revealed to be an exceptional disturbance of normal moral laws. Balance is achieved again and order restored through the destruction of the hero. Dark forces often seem to be at work and the whole world seems to be involved. They create their own individual world where normal moral laws are overturned
 * uses intricate wordplay and an exceptionally rich store of vivid images

'' Henry VI (Part1). Henry VI (part 2) Henry VI (part 3) ''

 Richard II., 

'' Richard III. ''

Henry IV. (part 1),  '' Henry IV. (part 2) ''

 Henry V., 

<p style="margin-bottom:0cm">King John

<p style="margin-bottom:0cm">Julius Caesar <p style="margin-bottom:0cm"> tragedies:

<p style="margin-bottom:0cm">Titus Andronicus - a Roman tragedy of righteous revenge for heinous and bloody acts

<p style="margin-bottom:0cm"> Romeo and Juliet, 

<p style="margin-bottom:0cm"> Hamlet, 

<p style="margin-bottom:0cm"> Othello, 

<p style="margin-bottom:0cm"> King Lear, 

<p style="margin-bottom:0cm"> Macbeth, 

<p style="margin-bottom:0cm"> Antony and Cleopatra, 

<p style="margin-bottom:0cm"> Timon of Athens, 

<p style="margin-bottom:0cm">Coriolanus

<p style="margin-bottom:0cm">Troilus and Cressida <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">'' The Tragedy of King Richard II. '' - based on historical cronicle. And a play by Marlowe. A political drama, it concerns the Devine Rights of the Kings. King has the power from God. At the time of Elisabeth IV. there were rebellians.

<p style="margin-bottom:0cm">Richard II. lived at the age of Chaucer, in the 14th cent. His wife was Queen Anne (Czech)

<p style="margin-bottom:0cm"> imagery of Richard II.
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">the central theme is deposition and murder of the weak king
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">Shakespeare lived at the time of strong patriotism. England fought against the Spanish army. Elizabeth was unmaried. This was a threat for the country.
 * 1) *<p style="margin-bottom:0cm">1601 Shakespeare’s group was asked by Lord Essex’s people to put out the play about the murder of Richard II. The play presents the idea that the monarch could abdicate, with the influence of public opinion. A political drama.
 * 2) *<p style="margin-bottom:0cm">In 5 acts, 2 main characters: Richard II, Henry Bolingbroke, and the future king Edward II. Richard banishes Henry from the kingdom, Henry’s father dies, there are reproaches, king needs money, goes to journey Henry has a strong army. Richard decides to abdicate and is murdered. Henry becomes king. Bolingbroke refuses to take the moral responsibility of the death of the king.
 * 3) *<p style="margin-bottom:0cm">The play was banned.

- repeated imagery. Metaphor for Britain of sea world garden. The sun, which was an emblem of Richard II, is repeated often. Image of fire. Image of kingship. Clouds and storms that threat the sun.

<p style="margin-bottom:0cm">Water is mentioned – as the sea, as tears. History of the play: the king is neither good or bad, the audience had to decide themselves. <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">Interpretation of the play: in Elizabethan time might have seemed like a rebellion. In this period it was dangerous to speak about murdering the king. In romantic period it was popular again. In Victorian period wasn’t very popular because of the queen.

The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark

 * 1) *The tragedy of man who could not make up his mind. A philosophical play, revenge tragedy. The hero is to punish the evil. In 5 acts = conventionally. Many themes. The strongest theme is that of revenge.
 * 2) *<p style="margin-bottom:0cm">revenge mentioned: 1. Fortinbras wants to revenge for some old events in Denmark. This revenge is open. He has nothing to hide. At the end he wins more than his father lost.
 * 3) <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">Laertes, Ophelia’s brother wants to revenge his father’s death and his sister’s madness and death. He fullfills his revenge but it comes at the cost of his life.
 * 4) <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">Hamlet was chosen by his father to revenge his fathers death. He hesitates. He tries to get proof of the guilt. Then he decides to kill Claudius. He has a chance to kill him but at the moment, while he is praying, he hesitates again. He has no other chance. His hesitation is punished by his death.
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">Gertrude showed her faithlessness to marry her brother-in-law. Rosencratz and Guildernstern use Hamlet’s friendship in order to spy on Hamlet. Horatio is shown as a real man, able to do, able to judge.
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">themes: madness – Ophelia’s case is real madness. It’s put to contrast with Hamlet’s pretended one. Hamlet pretends it to find out the truth, eventually he goes mad. Another interpretation: he’s mad from the very beginning. He cannot cope with being a revenger. He is a thinker, and cannot make up his mind – it raises a question “Would he be a good ruler?”
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm"> the role of the ghosts : people believed that if a man died without forgiveness he goes to hell, there is purgatory - he serves some time there to work out his guilt. The cause of ghosts. Protestants believed that ghosts were evil spirit. Hamlet believed it too.
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm"> Claudius: an evil man but no monster. Very able ruler. We understand his ambitions. He is criticized by Hamlet. Hamlet is the only one to criticise him. Very perceptivly Claudius sees Hamlet as a threat to him and whole state. Sends Hamlet to England so that he would be killed. In the end we are sure Claudius is dishonest. He really tries to save his neck till the very end to save the situation. It’s logical that Fortinbras comes to throne.
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm"> Gertrude – ruled by her passions, weak personality
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm"> Ophelia – girl with noble feelings, innocent. Obeyed her father. Loved Hamlet. Became a victim.
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm"> Polonius – Foolish and meddling. Dishonorable. Is a servant and serves the king.
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm"> Leartes – good brother. Easily manipulated. Honest. Reliable
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm"> conflict man v. man, man v. himself – philosophical dimension. The ghost is seen. What is illusion and what is reality? Hamlet doesn’t know whether the ghost is good or evil. We don’t know whether hamlet is mad or not. Whether the king is the murderer. We also don't know whether Hamlet loves Ophelia.
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm"> there are several types of climax a) the greatest excitement for the reader b) the point when one force wins but then relinquishes control to the other force and then there is no way back. When Hamlet kills Polonius and he is a murderer and can’t undo it. Types of suspense – when the reader knows who is guilty and he knows when he is headed to punishment. In Hamlet we don’t know it.
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm"> diction – each character has its own diction. Ways of speech. Horatio speaks clearly. Claudius speaks like a king, in a noble way. Polonius speaks in short sentences, as if cut off.

=The Winter’s Tale=
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">written at the end of Shakespeare’s career, early in 1611. One of his last plays. Is concerned with themes of beauty and innocence. The value of repentance. The direct involvement of supernatural forces in the affairs of man.
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">The title would suggest a strange, magical story that was old, long and suitable for long winter’s evenings. He used “the” to suggest that it is not just “any” tale.
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">Nature of the play is tragicomic. Songs are carefully integrated into the dialogues.
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">The play was performed at court in 1613 as part of the wedding of Princess Elizabeth. Was very popular.
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">The play derives its plot from a prose romance Pandosto. A king’s unfounded jealousy causes death and disorder. The love between members of the younger generation helps to compensate for the animosity between their parents. Shakespeare changed much of the action, names of characters.
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">At the beginning we learn that king Leontes of Sicilia has been entertaining his friend King Polixenes of Bohemia. Leontes thinks that his wife Harmione was unfaithful to him with Polixenes. Orders him to be poisoned. Camillo warns Polixenes and they leave. Leontes puts his wife in prison and sends messengers to consult the Oracle of Apollo at Delphos. Leontes doesn’t wait, puts Harmione’s daughter in prison. Wants to burn her. Antigonus leaves the baby in Bohemia. It is found by a shepherd. Harn’s trial begins. Messengers return with declaration of innocence. Leontes refuses it. His son dies. Harmione faints. Leontes is informed that she too has died. Leontes begins to mourn for the loss of his family and friend. After 16 years, the daughter has grown. The son of King Polixenes falls in love with her, but his father doesn’t approve of son’s love for a shepherdess. But Florizel gives up the throne rather than Perdita. They flee to the court of Leontes. The old shepherd tells that Perdita is the daughter of Leontes. Good news – Harmione is still alive. Harmione restored to Leontes and unity of the two royal families by the marriage of Florizel and Perdita.
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">Like most his plays has 5 acts and 15 scenes. They provide contrast between courtly and rustic life and between tragic possibilities and humorous activities. Basic to the play is the struggle between good and evil. Jealousy can cause suffering and death, the decay of friendship and the loss of personal happiness. Balanced against the evil which resulted from the insane jealousy of Leontes is the suggestion that good can triumph over bad and replace it with forgiveness. Combines his interest in the nobility of women with the theme of death and resurrection.
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">The play seems to have three parts: 1. the events at the court of Leontes- pain and sadness which human willfulness can cause, 2. In Bohemia, innocence, youthful love and humor. 3 Completes the circle, takes place in Sicilia. The evil and sadness of the first part are in part redeemed by love, joy of the second part.
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">The play is much more than just a romantic fairy tale. It examines the cycle of sin, suffering and eventual purification. It deals with a number of serious themes, jealousy and humour, crime and punishment, love and mercy. The seriousness is not allowed to dominate the play. In spite of the discord at the start, the play ends on a note of serenity. The older generations have found peace and the younger ones love.

=Antony and Cleopatra= -Mark Antony, Lepidus and Octavius are three Triumvirs and have divided the Roman world after assassination of Julius Caesar. Antony is so devoted to Cleopatra, neglects his duties and wife in Rome. From the rebellion of his wife Fulvia and his brother against Caesar he realizes what this has caused. He decides that must leave Cleopatra. When he has gone, she hides how deeply she loves him. He agrees to marry Caesar’s sister Octavia to reunite triumvirate. Cleopatra is angry. Triumvirs meet Sixtus who is powerful at sea. In Caesar’s house Antony is warned by the soothsayer. He agrees to return to Egypt. Antony, Caesar and Lepidus celebrate their treaty on Pompey’s ship. Antony leaves with Octavia eastwards. Caesar brakes treaty and imprisons Pompey. World is divided between Antony and Caesar. Octavia goes to Rome to make peace. Antony goes to Cleopatra, bestows upon her the eastern kingdoms. It is the final outrage for Caesar. War follows. Caesar wins the first battle. Cleopatra flees in the middle of sea battle. Antony follows her to Egypt. Beginning of the end of lover. Antony is disgusted with himself and the queen. Contemplates suicide. Caesar arrives to Egypt with army. Antony sends for peace terms. Caesar wants Cleopatra to send Antony away or kill him. Caesar sends Thidias to win Cleopatra from Antony. Antony decides to fight Caesar. The next day Cleopatra helps Eros to arm Antony. Just before the battle he hears that Anabarbus has gone over to Caesar. Antony sends all his treasure after him. Antony wins first round and returns for last night with Cleopatra. Anabarbus dies in Caesar’s camp. Morning – queen’s navy surrendering to the enemy. Antony intents to kill her. She takes refuge and sends him a message that she has killed herself. Antony immediately commands Eros to kill him. Eros stabs himself instead. Antony falls on his own sword, but is only wounded, asks Diomedes to take him to Cleopatra. Antony dies in Queen’s arms, she resolves to follow him. Caesar comes to Cleopatra to encourage her not to kill herself. But she takes a snake and dies of poison. Caesar accepts his defeat by the lovers, orders Cleopatra be buried with Antony.

Macbeth
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">1603 James IV of Scotland became James I of England. Believed himself to be God on the earth. Interested in witchcraft and heresy – everything can be found in the play.
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">In 1590s Shakespeare wrote 9 plays about England’s dynamic history. They were written at a special time and appealed to patriotic, protestant Englishmen in a very special way.
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">many of Shakespeare’s plays examine situations of political ambitions and power.
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">For Macbeth, he used source-book Holinshed’s “Chronicles of England, Scotland and Ireland”, created plays based on material found in the Chronicles. But he characters are differentiated and developed in a manner completely unlike the original.
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">3 witches gathered in an open place in a thunder storm. They agree to reassemble on the moorland before sunset to meet Macbeth. Duncan – King of Scotland, with two sons in army camp receives news of battles fought against him by Seveno King of Norway, MacDonwald – Lord of Isles of Scotland, Thane of Cawdor, reports stress heroism of Macbeth. General, Duncan announces Macbeth get title of Thane of Cawdor.
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">Witches recount things they can do to men. While Macbeth and Banquo on way from victory witches prepare with a charm. The greet Macbeth, the King to be. Banquo is told that he will produce heirs who will become kings. Witches disappear. Toss and Angus arrive to announce Macbeth's title. Macbeth speculates on future and speeks with Banquo they later find time to discus the strange happening.
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">Malcolm, Duncan’s son in the palace. Macbeth enters. Welcomed by the King. King announce Malcolm title of Prince of Cumberland. Duncan wants to travel to Macbeth’s castle. Macbeth takes the news to his wife and realises the new Prince is obstacle to his ambition.
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">A messenger arrives to Macbeth’s castle. Lady Macbeth has already prepared her mind for the murder of Duncan. He arrives. Macbeth decides to cancel the plan but his wife persuades him. He steels himself for the murder. Macbeth is almost out of his mind. Unable to return to the scene of his crime. Macbeth is crowned. Settles in Royal Palace. Is aware of the threat posed by Banquo’s qualities. Arranges his murder. Is tormented. Lady tries to reassure him. Banquo’s ghost enters the feast hall and occupies Macbeth’s place. Is visible only to Macbeth.
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">Witches tell Macbeth he cannot be harmed by one “born of woman”. Macbeth killed all members of Macduff’s family. Lady Macbeth is ill, in sleep she tells everything to the doctor. Macbeth is preparing to withstand the siege. He is told about his wife’s death. All is lost, but he decides to die fighting. Finally Macbeth and Macduff prepare to fight. Macduff informs him that he was not “born: to his mother in usual way” and kills Macbeth. Prings his head in front of the army and pledges that he will bring peace and order back to Scotland.
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">Structure: the third shortest play. Fast plot. Throughout the play our attention is fixed firmly on Macbeth. We hear the contrast between the good king and the evil Macbeth. Unlike many of his plays, Macbeth has no sub-plot. The play offers so much more than the analysis of one man. Uses the lesser characters to comment on the central action. The scenes with the witches show an abyss of anti-human evil on the edge of which mankind stumbles and into which Macbeth enters.
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">The play operates as a series of contrasts and parallels.
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">Characters: character is in Shakespeare a difficult term to delimit. His plays are not like modern novels where author spends a great deal of time helping us to understand how a character has come to be what he is. We have to accept what we are given in a Shakespearean play without asking too many questions about how the situation has been reached. There is a psychological depth and truth in a play but there are also many aspects which remain untouched.

Shakespeare’s Language

 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">Language was used less systematically.
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">Mobility of word classes – adjectives used as nouns, as adverbs.
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">Changes in the meaning of words, i.e. affection (liking, love) meant quality.
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">Vocabulary loss, i.e. barne = child, boot = compensation, cap-a-pe = form head to foot, moe = more, pash = head, scape = sin, welkin = sky, heavens
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">Verbs could be used without “do” in question and negatives. Some past tense forms are used ungrammatically. Present perfect of Shakespeare = past simple. Archaic forms of verbs sometimes occur with “thou” and with 3rd person singular subjects
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">Pronoun “you” was used for more than one person. oúr to indicate respect, if not – Shakespeare uses “thou”
 * <p style="margin-bottom:0cm">multiple negation – two or even more to express emphasis